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In Case You Missed It: Code violations, Flock cameras, and South Apopka annexation
A rejected code-enforcement settlement, concerns about Flock cameras and a South Apopka annexation proposal brought major community issues before city commissioners. Catch up on those stories, plus Matthew’s Hope’s possible expansion, development questions at Kelly Park and Mayor Nick Nesta’s perspective on city employees.
A rivalry separated by just eight miles returned Friday night as Apopka scored a touchdown and converted a two-point attempt in the final minute to defeat Lake Brantley 21-15 in front of a homecoming crowd.
Apopka rallies late to beat Lake Brantley 21-15 on homecoming night
Apopka erased a fourth-quarter deficit with a touchdown in the final minute to defeat Lake Brantley 21-15 on homecoming night. Kai Goodling connected with Ceon Cotton for the decisive score and a two-point conversion as the neighboring programs renewed their rivalry.
Orange County is inviting residents and community partners to identify housing needs, service gaps, and development priorities for its next five-year Consolidated Plan. Apopka residents can participate through Engage Orange by completing a community needs survey, sharing ideas, and providing feedback.
Orange County seeks input on housing and community development priorities
Orange County is inviting residents and community partners to identify housing needs, service gaps, and development priorities for its next five-year Consolidated Plan. Apopka residents can participate through Engage Orange by completing a community needs survey, sharing ideas, and providing feedback.
A University of Florida study found the primary mosquito species capable of transmitting dengue was more common than researchers expected in residential yards in Indian River County. Participants frequently reported bites while gardening and walking dogs, highlighting how everyday activities close to home can bring people into contact with mosquitoes.
UF study finds dengue-transmitting mosquito species common in residential yards
A University of Florida study found the primary mosquito species capable of transmitting dengue was more common than researchers expected in residential yards in Indian River County. Participants frequently reported bites while gardening and walking dogs, highlighting how everyday activities close to home can bring people into contact with mosquitoes.
Project Noelle’s Red Ribbon Spooktacular will bring costumes, contests, and a drug-prevention message to the Apopka Community Center on October 24. Behind the free family event is a nonprofit founded by Keli Clark after her daughter’s overdose death, dedicated to helping children affected by a parent’s addiction.
Her name was Noelle: The story behind Apopka's Red Ribbon Spooktacular 
Project Noelle’s Red Ribbon Spooktacular will bring costumes, contests, and a drug-prevention message to the Apopka Community Center on October 24. Behind the free family event is a nonprofit founded by Keli Clark after her daughter’s overdose death, dedicated to helping children affected by a parent’s addiction.
Local News
Open enrollment for 2027 ACA coverage begins November 1. Enrollment assisters said the first step is checking whether your primary physician will still be in-network next year.
Florida Open Enrollment: Check doctor networks before choosing a health plan
Floridians comparing health coverage for 2027 should confirm that their doctors are in-network and their prescriptions are covered. Experts also recommend starting early and weighing deductibles, copays, and coinsurance alongside monthly premiums.
In this opinion column, Apopka Mayor Nick Nesta says that protecting taxpayers and supporting city employees are compatible goals. He outlines his rationale for restructuring leadership and urges a thorough review of spending before reducing services residents depend on.
Nesta: Taking care of Apopka means taking care of our employees too
In this opinion column, Apopka Mayor Nick Nesta says that protecting taxpayers and supporting city employees are compatible goals. He outlines his rationale for restructuring leadership and urges a thorough review of spending before reducing services residents depend on.
Former Apopka City Commissioner Alexander H. Smith speaks during the South Apopka annexation discussion: “That (Dowdell) lawsuit was 45 years ago, and here we are 45 years later still discussing the same issue. Our excuse for the past 8 years was that we needed to get this study done; now that it’s feasible, we no longer have an excuse.”
City Commission advances South Apopka annexation proposal toward 2028 ballot
The Apopka City Commission unanimously voted to advance the proposed annexation of South Apopka toward county consideration and a March 2028 referendum. Commissioners debated a projected $5.5 million funding gap, while historian Francina Boykin presented a petition opposing annexation.
Apopka’s Development Review Committee raised concerns about the Crossroads at Kelly Park commercial layout and its connection to a roadway funding agreement. The committee also reviewed upcoming events, including the Apopka Christmas Parade, K92.3’s Jingle Jam, and a Bee Gees tribute fundraiser.
DRC raises concerns over Crossroads at Kelly Park plans
Apopka’s Development Review Committee raised concerns about the Crossroads at Kelly Park commercial layout and its connection to a roadway funding agreement. The committee also reviewed upcoming events, including the Apopka Christmas Parade, K92.3’s Jingle Jam, and a Bee Gees tribute fundraiser.
Hope CommUnity Center has postponed Apopka PRIDE 2026 because of Saturday’s forecast for inclement weather; a new date will be announced. Heavy rainfall and saturated roads will also close the Lake Apopka Wildlife Drive to motorized vehicles Oct. 9–12.
Weather disrupts Apopka PRIDE and Lake Apopka Wildlife Drive weekend plans
Hope CommUnity Center has postponed Apopka PRIDE 2026 because of Saturday’s forecast for inclement weather; a new date will be announced. Heavy rainfall and saturated roads will also close the Lake Apopka Wildlife Drive to motorized vehicles Oct. 9–12.
Apopka police reported arrests involving carjacking, sexual battery, aggravated assault, DUI, and other charges during the week of September 27 through October 3. The department also recorded 1,587 calls for service, 53 citations, and 35 crashes.
APD reports arrests on carjacking, sexual battery, and aggravated assault charges
Apopka police reported arrests involving carjacking, sexual battery, aggravated assault, DUI, and other charges during the week of September 27 through October 3. The department also recorded 1,587 calls for service, 53 citations, and 35 crashes.

FPL partnership provides Florida firefighters training on battery storage systems

Florida Power & Light and the Florida Fire Marshals and Inspectors Association are partnering to train first responders on battery energy storage systems. More than 200 firefighters and emergency personnel have completed the program this year as FPL expands its use of battery storage across Florida.

Florida Power & Light and the Florida Fire Marshals and Inspectors Association are partnering to train first responders on battery energy storage systems. More than 200 firefighters and emergency personnel have completed the program this year as FPL expands its use of battery storage across Florida.

DRC to review 363 apartments, Kelly Park projects and Crescent Ridge subdivision

The Apopka Development Review Committee will consider several residential projects Wednesday, including 363 apartments at The Ridge and the second phase of Crescent Ridge. Two Kelly Park Road proposals, a seven-lot subdivision and six special events are also on the agenda.

The Apopka Development Review Committee will consider several residential projects Wednesday, including 363 apartments at The Ridge and the second phase of Crescent Ridge. Two Kelly Park Road proposals, a seven-lot subdivision and six special events, are also on the agenda.

Business
The Apopka CRA’s latest project report shows progress on downtown amenities, housing renovations, and a proposed homeless resource center. However, the fiscal year 2027 budget removed two pedestrian improvement projects due to inactivity, while the master plan update and the second phase of the Downtown Apopka Trail remain pending.
CRA advances downtown projects, removes pedestrian upgrades from budget
The Apopka CRA’s latest project report shows progress on downtown amenities, housing renovations, and a proposed homeless resource center. However, the fiscal year 2027 budget removed two pedestrian improvement projects due to inactivity, while the master plan update and the second phase of the Downtown Apopka Trail remain pending.
The annual Peanut Butter Challenge is collecting donations to stock local food pantries, and Orange County hopes to expand its impact after winning last year’s competition. Residents can donate sealed, unexpired peanut butter at participating Extension offices during October, with collections continuing into November in some counties.
Peanut Butter Challenge returns to fight hunger; Orange County looks to build on winning effort
The annual Peanut Butter Challenge is collecting donations to stock local food pantries, and Orange County hopes to expand its impact after winning last year’s competition. Residents can donate sealed, unexpired peanut butter at participating Extension offices during October, with collections continuing into November in some counties.
A feasibility study finds that annexing South Apopka is legally and physically achievable, but estimates approximately $30.5 million in capital needs for police, fire, and public services. The City Commission will discuss the report on October 7 and consider a procedural step needed to keep a possible March 2027 referendum on track.
South Apopka annexation study finds path forward, but substantial costs remain
A feasibility study finds that annexing South Apopka is legally and physically achievable, but estimates approximately $30.5 million in capital needs for police, fire, and public services. The City Commission will discuss the report on October 7 and consider a procedural step needed to keep a possible March 2027 referendum on track.
Apopka’s Development Review Committee recommended denying two residential submissions totaling 165 proposed homes and lots because access, safety, and infrastructure questions remain unresolved.
DRC flags access and infrastructure concerns in 165-home proposals
Apopka’s Development Review Committee recommended denying two residential submissions totaling 165 proposed homes and lots because access, safety, and infrastructure questions remain unresolved.
Apopka’s Development Review Committee will consider residential plans, a charter school revision, and an amenity park on Wednesday morning. The agenda also includes three community events including a Turkey Trot at the Northwest Recreation Facility.
DRC to review housing lots, charter school revision and community park
Apopka’s Development Review Committee will consider residential plans, a charter school revision and an amenity park Wednesday morning. The agenda also includes access roads near State Road 429 and applications for three community events.
Mayor Nick Nesta invited Apopka service organizations to help shape a proposed resource center for people experiencing homelessness and other hardships. Participants welcomed the chance to coordinate their work but urged the city to set realistic goals and follow through.
Nesta’s plan for Apopka resource center draws hope and caution from service groups
Mayor Nick Nesta invited Apopka service organizations to help shape a proposed resource center for people experiencing homelessness and other hardships. Participants welcomed the chance to coordinate their work but urged the city to set realistic goals and follow through.

Seminole County Chamber opposes Amendment 3 over economic concerns

The Florida Capital

The Seminole County Chamber’s board voted unanimously to oppose Amendment 3 after reviewing its potential local impact. Chamber leaders said the proposal could strain public services and create uncertainty for small businesses and nonprofits.

Central Florida Community Arts seeks new executive director

Central Florida Community Arts is searching for an executive director to lead the nonprofit as artist participation and production attendance grow. The organization is seeking a leader with experience in fundraising, collaboration, and community engagement.

Central Florida Community Arts is searching for an executive director to lead the nonprofit as artist participation and production attendance grow. The organization is seeking a leader with experience in fundraising, collaboration, and community engagement.

Health
In a UnitedHealthcare survey, 62% of college students and young adults not enrolled in college reported a mental or behavioral health concern in the past year.
Survey finds mental health concerns remain high among young adults
In a UnitedHealthcare survey, 62% of college students and young adults not enrolled in college reported a mental or behavioral health concern in the past year. Dr. Danielle Madril recommends open conversations, careful use of AI tools, and greater awareness of professional and community resources.
The Florida Blue Foundation is awarding $3.1 million to eight community-based initiatives addressing food insecurity across the state. The programs will serve students, farmworkers, uninsured residents, people experiencing homelessness, and rural communities.
Florida Blue Foundation awards $3.1 million to combat food insecurity
The Florida Blue Foundation is awarding $3.1 million to eight community-based initiatives addressing food insecurity across the state. The programs will serve students, farmworkers, uninsured residents, people experiencing homelessness, and rural communities.
Health officials have confirmed two additional locally acquired dengue fever cases in the Apopka area, prompting a mosquito alert for Orange County. Mosquito Control is expanding surveillance and targeted treatment in Apopka, Pine Hills and other parts of the county.
Two dengue cases confirmed in the Apopka area
Health officials have confirmed two additional locally acquired dengue fever cases in the Apopka area, prompting a mosquito alert for Orange County. Mosquito Control is expanding surveillance and targeted treatment in Apopka, Pine Hills, and other parts of the county.
Orange County Mosquito Control has added new laboratory technology to detect viruses in mosquito samples more quickly. The PCR testing capability could deliver same-day results, reduce costs, and improve mitigation efforts.
Orange County adds faster testing for mosquito-borne illnesses
Orange County Mosquito Control has added new laboratory technology to detect viruses in mosquito samples more quickly. The PCR testing capability could deliver same-day results, reduce costs, and improve mitigation efforts.
AdventHealth grant helps Quest expand transportation access for people with developmental disabilities
Quest, Inc. has been selected as a 2026 AdventHealth grant partner to help reduce transportation barriers for people with developmental disabilities. The funding will allow the Central Florida nonprofit to enhance its accessible transportation fleet and improve connections to healthcare services.
Orange County Mayor Jerry Demings is sharing his experience with Stage 1 prostate cancer to encourage men to discuss screening and risk factors with their doctors. After undergoing surgery earlier this year, Demings says early detection gave him more treatment options and helped save his life.
Orange County Mayor shares prostate cancer journey, urges men to get screened
Orange County Mayor Jerry Demings is sharing his experience with Stage 1 prostate cancer to encourage men to discuss screening and risk factors with their doctors. After undergoing surgery earlier this year, Demings says early detection gave him more treatment options and helped save his life.

Florida lawmakers press AHCA for answers as KidCare expansion remains stalled

The DeSantis administration continues to delay implementing a 2023 law that would make Florida KidCare coverage available to more children.

Florida lawmakers are seeking answers about when—or whether—the state will implement a legislatively approved expansion of Florida KidCare. The expansion would extend subsidized coverage to children in families earning up to 300% of the federal poverty level, but litigation over continuous eligibility remains unresolved.

Are food recalls becoming more common? UF expert puts the numbers in perspective

A steady stream of recall notices and social media posts may make the nation’s food supply seem less safe, but a UF/IFAS expert says current recall numbers are generally consistent with previous years. Consumers should review the specific products, brands, and lot numbers involved rather than avoiding an entire food category.

A steady stream of recall notices and social media posts may make the nation’s food supply seem less safe, but a UF/IFAS expert says current recall numbers are generally consistent with previous years. Consumers should review the specific products, brands, and lot numbers involved rather than avoiding an entire category of food.

Boil-water advisory issued for Welch Road area after water main break

The City of Apopka has issued a precautionary boil-water advisory for several neighborhoods and businesses following a water main break on Welch Road east of Rock Springs Road. Customers should boil water used for drinking, cooking, making ice, brushing teeth, or washing dishes until the city lifts the advisory.

The City of Apopka has issued a precautionary boil-water advisory for several neighborhoods and businesses following a water main break on Welch Road east of Rock Springs Road. Customers should boil water used for drinking, cooking, making ice, brushing teeth, or washing dishes until the city lifts the advisory.

Government
South Apopka’s annexation study and proposed changes at City Hall led a busy week of local news. Also making headlines were a proposed resource center, infrastructure concerns surrounding 165 homes and more than 30 Apopka firefighters who completed the Tunnel to Towers run despite a storm.
In case you missed it: Annexation costs, City Hall changes and Apopka firefighters’ resolve
South Apopka’s annexation study and proposed City Hall changes made for a busy week of local news. Also making headlines were a proposed resource center, infrastructure concerns surrounding 165 homes, and more than 30 Apopka firefighters who completed the Tunnel to Towers run despite a storm.
Neil Goldberg’s donation supports reading programs, a student costume design contest, school arts funding, and opportunities to attend live holiday theater.
OCPS partnership expands arts and literacy opportunities for students
Orange County Public Schools students will get new opportunities to read, create, and experience live theater during the 2026–27 school year through a collaboration between the Foundation for Orange County Public Schools and POMP, SNOW & CIRQUEumstance (PSC).
Apopka Mayor Nick Nesta outlined a proposed government restructuring that includes chief of staff and chief utilities officer positions during Monday’s town hall. His former campaign manager, Brian Mater, said he would consider the chief of staff opportunity, while Nesta said the positions would be posted publicly.
Nesta proposes Apopka government restructuring; former campaign manager expresses interest in chief of staff role
Apopka Mayor Nick Nesta outlined a proposed government restructuring that includes chief of staff and chief utilities officer positions during Monday’s town hall. His former campaign manager, Brian Mater, said he would consider the chief of staff opportunity, while Nesta said the positions would be posted publicly.
Burglary, weapons and assault charges highlight Apopka’s weekly arrest report
The APD listed burglary, weapons, assault, and drug charges among the arrests reported Sept. 20–26. The department also recorded 1,680 calls for service, 58 citations, and 31 crashes.
Despite the ferocity of storms like Hurricane Milton, which destroyed Florida homes like this one in 2024, 80 percent of Central Floridians believe their homes are at medium to low risk for severe damage in a given year.
Insurance costs eclipse property tax worries for Central Florida homeowners
Property insurance is a bigger worry than property taxes for 62% of Central Florida homeowners, according to a new University of North Florida poll. The survey also found widespread dissatisfaction with insurance reforms and substantial premium increases.
Apopka police responded to four burglary incidents during the week of Sept. 20–26. The reports involved a business, a residence, and two vehicles.
APD responds to burglaries at a business, a home and two vehicles
Apopka police responded to four burglary incidents during the week of Sept. 20–26. The reports involved a business, a residence, and two vehicles.

More than 30 Apopka firefighters complete Tunnel to Towers run despite storm

More than 30 Apopka firefighters joined Sunday’s Tunnel to Towers run in New York City despite travel delays and stormy conditions. Former Fire Chief Chuck Carnesale called the group “relentless” in its commitment to honoring those lost on September 11.

More than 30 Apopka firefighters joined Sunday’s Tunnel to Towers run in New York City despite travel delays and stormy conditions. Former Fire Chief Chuck Carnesale called the group “relentless” in its commitment to honoring those lost on September 11.

Orange County approves $9 billion budget with $1.1 billion for public safety

Orange County commissioners approved a roughly $9 billion budget that directs more than $1.1 billion to the Sheriff’s Office, Fire Rescue, and Corrections. The county also set aside $19.5 million for affordable housing while warning that Amendment 3 could reduce future property tax revenue.

Orange County commissioners approved a roughly $9 billion budget that directs more than $1.1 billion to the Sheriff’s Office, Fire Rescue and Corrections. The county also set aside $19.5 million for affordable housing while warning that Amendment 3 could reduce future property tax revenue.

Apopka commissioners offer four perspectives on City Hall dismissals

Apopka’s four city commissioners have responded to Mayor Nick Nesta’s decision to remove interim City Administrator Radley Williams and Finance Director Blanche Sherman. Their statements differ on the dismissals, but each points to the same question now facing City Hall: how the administration will reorganize and explain what comes next.

Apopka’s four commissioners responded to the departure of interim City Administrator Radley Williams and Finance Director Blanche Sherman. Their statements offer different views on the changes underway at City Hall and what should happen next.

Opinion

Florida county officials try to eliminate public comment on development

Pine Island is a coastal area in Lee County that retains a rural flavor and lots of natural beauty, but developers want to change that.
Lee County residents organized against a sweeping growth-plan rewrite they said was rushed, poorly publicized, and designed to diminish their influence over development. Their successful opposition is especially relevant in Apopka, where the placement, livestreaming, and official recording of public comments have sparked controversy.
Apopka Historical Society President Maribel Brinkle welcomes the vision presented in Building Downtown Apopka but argues that the city cannot afford to spend another seven years planning its future. She calls for a proposed downtown museum complex designed to generate activity and revenue.
Letter to the Editor: Downtown Apopka needs action, not another seven years of planning
Maribel Brinkle welcomes the vision presented in Building Downtown Apopka but argues that the city cannot afford to spend another seven years planning its future. She calls for immediate economic-development leadership and consideration of a proposed downtown museum complex designed to generate activity and revenue.
Downtown Apopka 2033? Apopka should use the CRA’s proposed seven-year extension to plan and pursue a transformative civic complex without placing it ahead of urgent public-safety projects. A modern library, events center, history center, and civic plaza could become the defining destination, connecting downtown’s existing investments and encouraging private development.
Opinion: Could a civic campus become downtown Apopka’s missing centerpiece?
Apopka should use the CRA’s proposed seven-year extension to plan and pursue a transformative civic complex without placing it ahead of urgent public-safety projects. A modern library, events center, history center, and civic plaza could become the defining destination, connecting downtown’s existing investments and encouraging private development.
Downtown Greenville, SC: Cities near Apopka’s size have transformed their downtowns by concentrating public resources around distinctive parks, cultural facilities, and civic destinations. Their experiences show that Apopka must move beyond disconnected improvements and decide what kind of downtown it intends to create.
Opinion: Successful downtowns begin when cities decide to build something consequential- Part 2
Cities near Apopka’s size have transformed their downtowns by concentrating public resources around distinctive parks, cultural facilities, and civic destinations. Their experiences show that Apopka must move beyond disconnected improvements and decide what kind of downtown it intends to create.
The Apopka CRA has completed meaningful trail, housing, park, and pedestrian projects while accumulating approximately $6.13 million in reserves and carryover funding. As the agency seeks seven more years to complete its work, it must connect those investments through a measurable strategy centered on creating a recognizable downtown destination.
Opinion: Apopka’s CRA has the money... now it needs a transformative mission - Part 1
The Apopka CRA has completed meaningful trail, housing, park, and pedestrian projects while accumulating approximately $6.13 million in reserves and carryover funding. As the agency seeks seven more years to complete its work, it must connect those investments through a measurable strategy centered on creating a recognizable downtown destination.
Apopka’s elected officials want to keep the millage rate low while preserving community programs, filling staff vacancies, and addressing years of deferred needs. Eventually, they must acknowledge that rejecting recurring revenue means cutting services, drawing on reserves, or letting today’s problems become tomorrow’s more expensive emergencies.
The Price of Saying No: Apopka cannot have a bare-bones budget without feeling the cuts
Apopka’s elected officials want to keep the millage rate low while preserving community programs, filling staff vacancies, and addressing years of deferred needs. Eventually, they must acknowledge that rejecting recurring revenue means cutting services, drawing on reserves, or letting today’s problems become tomorrow’s more expensive emergencies.
The Apopka CRA has completed meaningful trail, housing, park, and pedestrian projects while accumulating approximately $6.13 million in reserves and carryover funding. As the agency seeks seven more years to complete its work, it must connect those investments through a measurable strategy centered on creating a recognizable downtown destination.
Opinion: Apopka’s CRA has the money... now it needs a transformative mission - Part 1
The Apopka CRA has completed meaningful trail, housing, park, and pedestrian projects while accumulating approximately $6.13 million in reserves and carryover funding. As the agency seeks seven more years to complete its work, it must connect those investments through a measurable strategy centered on creating a recognizable downtown destination.

Leadership Beyond the Likes: When Doing What is Right Means Standing Alone 

Social-media reactions, headlines, and popular opinion cannot replace a careful understanding of the consequences of government decisions. True leadership means remaining grounded in faith, treating residents and businesses fairly, and accepting that doing what is right may sometimes require standing alone. OP/ED by Apopka City Commissioner Nadia Anderson.

Social-media reactions, headlines, and popular opinion cannot replace a careful understanding of the consequences of government decisions. True leadership means remaining grounded in faith, treating residents and businesses fairly, and accepting that doing what is right may sometimes require standing alone. OP/ED by Apopka City Commissioner Nadia Anderson.

At Matthew’s Hope, service comes without conditions

After being challenged to exclude and denounce members of the LGBTQ+ community, Matthew’s Hope founder Scott Billue reaffirmed the ministry’s commitment to serving everyone without discrimination. He argues that Christian faith is demonstrated not through judgment, but through unconditional compassion and a willingness to do difficult work.

After being challenged to exclude and denounce members of the LGBTQ+ community, Matthew’s Hope founder Scott Billue reaffirmed the ministry’s commitment to serving everyone without discrimination. He believes that Christian faith is demonstrated not through judgment, but through unconditional compassion and a willingness to do difficult work.

Small town street-safety project offers lessons in working around local constraints

Street-safety advocates in Ivins, Utah, faced a series of unusual restrictions that eliminated many traditional options for making a school-area roundabout safer. Instead of abandoning the effort, they focused on the underlying goal of slowing traffic and developed a less expensive pilot project using painted curb extensions.

Street-safety advocates in Ivins, Utah, faced a series of unusual restrictions that eliminated many traditional options for making a school-area roundabout safer. Instead of abandoning the effort, they focused on the underlying goal of slowing traffic and developed a less expensive pilot project using painted curb extensions.

Bonus Content

What are typical mistakes homeowners make when refinishing hardwood floors?

(BPT) - Key takeaways:Homeowners value hardwood floors because of their warmth, beauty and endurance.It's important to protect the appearance, value and lifespan of hardwood floors by …

17 therapist-approved tips for dealing with seasonal depression

Talkspace reports on 17 therapist-approved tips to cope with seasonal depression, including therapy, hydration, sunlight, and exercise, aiding in symptom relief.

5 common mistakes homeowners make refinishing hardwood floors

(BPT) - Key takeaways:Hardwood floors are valued for their beauty, warmth and endurance.Refinishing protects the lifespan, appearance and value of hardwood floors.Zack Clavin, Bona's "Floor Doctor," …

Rediscover the lost secrets of history, one mystery at a time

(BPT) - Where is Alexander the Great really buried? What led to the disappearance of the dodo? And how much do we truly know about the Neolithic cultures that shaped the earliest chapters of human …